01-02-LinuxBash

____________________________________________________

Previous: 00-VirtualMachines

Unix and Linux

This is Tux the Linux mascot...

https://eylenburg.github.io/os_familytree.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Unix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix
(see tree: e.g., FreeBSD yielded MacOS)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions
(see tree: e.g., RedHat-Fedora, OpenSuse, Debian, etc.)
http://etutorials.org/Linux+systems/
http://labor-liber.org/en/gnu-linux/introduction/

Unix philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy
Excerpts from the Unix philosophy:

Write programs to handle text streams, because that is a universal interface.
Combine ``small, sharp tools" and the use of ``common underlying format,
the line-oriented, plain text file" to accomplish larger tasks.
Store data in flat text files.

Another major tenet of the philosophy is to use plain text
(i.e., human readable alphanumeric characters)
rather than binary files (which are not fully human readable)
to the extent possible for the inputs and outputs of programs,
and for configuration files.
This is because plain text is a universal interface;
that is, it can allow programs to easily interact with each other,
in the form of text outputs and inputs,
in contrast to the difficulty of mutually incompatible binary formats,
and because such files can be easily interfaced with humans.
The latter means that it is easy for humans to:
study, correct, improve, and extend such files,
as well as to port (i.e., modify) them to new platforms
(i.e., other combinations of operating systems and hardware).

Unix tradition strongly encourages writing programs that read and write:
simple, textual, stream-oriented, device-independent formats.
Under classic Unix, as many programs as possible are written as simple filters,
which take a simple text stream on input,
and process it into another simple text stream on output.
Despite popular mythology,
this practice is not favored because Unix programmers hate graphical user interfaces. It's because if you don't write programs that accept and emit simple text streams,
then it's much more difficult to hook the programs together.
Text streams are to Unix tools,
as messages are to objects, in an object-oriented setting.
The simplicity of the text-stream interface enforces the encapsulation of the tools.
More elaborate forms of inter-process communication,
such as remote procedure calls,
show a tendency to involve programs with each others' internals too much.
To make programs composable, make them independent.
A program on one end of a text stream should care as little as possible about the program on the other end.
It should be made easy to replace one end with a completely different implementation,
without disturbing the other.

How to use a Linux or Unix operating system

Two major options (remote or local):

Connect to a remote machine (several separate options):

1. $ ssh into an MST Campus Linux machine:
   • See the SyllabusGeneral for how; sections on campus computers.
2. $ ssh into some other remote computer:
   • Try this game after completing the bash tutorials below.
   • http://overthewire.org/wargames/bandit/bandit0.html
3. Use a web interface to remote-desktop into a virtual machine...
   • Meh...

Use a local installation (numerous options):

1. Virtual machine:
   • 00-VirtualMachines (for a brief overview)
   • For classes, I make an optional OVA virtual machine file for you.
2. Use docker:
   • Install docker
   • At your terminal, run: $ docker run -it fedora:latest
3. USB stick install:
   • First, you can just get a live ephemeral drive: https://en.opensuse.org/Create_installation_USB_stick
   • Next, you could install that to another USB drive, so your changes are persistent across reboots (temporarily requires a second USB drive)
4. Install on your main hard drive:
   • Follow up on the first step of the USB stick option.

Why is it practical to learn and use a Unix-derived OS?

• For huge percentage of development in many fields of software development, it's all or mostly Unix-like environments.
• Consider which devices out there are computers.
  • This includes servers, firewalls, phones (which are computers), embedded devices (which contain computers), refrigerators, toasters, docker containers, gaming devices, etc.
  • The vast majority of the computers in the world run Unix or Linux derived operating systems, by far.
• In computer security, the primary reserves of both defensive and offensive security software exist as open source code that runs in a Unix-derived environment.
• These OS's support and integrate virtualization by design, enabling novel web/network engineering.
• You can read the code, fix the code, and thus "trust" the code does what you think it does:
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source-software_movement
  • Transparency is a good thing!

Unix/Linux is THE status-quo for software development and testing.
This list could continue for pages... just "duck" it:
https://duckduckgo.com/?q=why+learn+linux

Task for you

• Read the following tutorial in full!

https://ryanstutorials.net/linuxtutorial/
https://ryanstutorials.net/linuxtutorial/cheatsheet.php

Linux desktop environments

Though it might initially seem important,
it doesn't really matter which front-end desktop environment (DE) you pick.
You can install multiple, switch back-and-forth, etc.

Pick one, pick all, it does not matter; just try some out.

Linux distributions

Though it might initially seem important,
it doesn't really matter too much which distribution you pick (within reason).
Here are some common choices:

+Fedora
This is testing for Red Hat and also offers Fedora Security Labs, not-quite bleeding edge but up-to-date, minimal, good, inconvenient versioned releases, mediocre documentation.
Almost bleeding edge, corporate go-to, minimal docs/support.

+OpenSuse
Up-to-date, corporate go-to, great docs/support, recommended.
For an introductory experience on your own machine, this is a nice choice. It's a "rolling release" so you don't need to re-install at new versions, best documentation out there, not-quite bleeding edge but up-to-date.

+Debian
Old, conservative, mother distribution, experiencing "death by committee" despite progressive intent...
Inconvenient versioned releases, ancient software options, ancient out-of-date documentation, OK but not recommended.

Ubuntu (or anything else Debian derived). Don't bother over just using Debian...

+Kali
Based on Debian, with more security-related packages, inconvenient versioned releases, partially up-to-date, unstable, inconsistent, OK but not recommended unless you need some particular package in it.
insecure offensive/forensics security distribution based on Debian.

Linux files and file system

Computers store files.
Files can be organized into directories, also know as folders.
Linux is designed to be a multi-user system.
The system administrator (root) controls the root files.
Each user only controls their own little home directory.
This is know as "separation of privilege" in operating system security.

...

The root of the hierarchical Linux file tree is "/"

In general, root refers to the base or origin of a branching system.
Disclaimer: root is also the name of a special user account,
the system administrator, who can access the root directory,
and do anything on the computer!
Here, we're talking about the base of the Unix/Linux directory tree,
with a standardized organization:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_directory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard

/home/

/home/ may be aliased as ~ or $HOME
It contains all your stuff, documents, photos, whatever you store.
As a non-administrative user,
it is the ONLY place you are intended to explicitly have access to.
It contains "dot-files" or hidden files, with a '.' in front of their filenames.
These often contain configuration particular to a user.
~/.config/ for example, is a folder of configuration files for the various applications you have run.

Demonstrate in parallel:

GUI file browser:
thunar

Terminal commands:
ls
tree
ranger
mc

All these display and manage the same file system,
the back-end structure of files and directories.

Everything is a file

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everything_is_a_file
How do you use the operating system to access it's files,
its programs (which are files),
and it's devices (which "are" files)?

File extensions

Linux does not care what file extension you use,
but instead looks at the contents of the files.

Command-based interaction

Shells

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(computing)
Operating system shells are a command-line interface (CLI).
In computing, a shell is a user interface,
that provides access to an operating system's services.
A shell is also an interpreted, interactive, programming language (a scripting language).

What is a shell?

login is a program that logs users in to a computer.
When it logs you in, login checks a file called /etc/passwd to see which shell you use.
After it authenticates you, it runs whatever your shell happens to be.
Shells give you a way to run programs and view their output.
Shells also usually include some built-in commands.
Shells use variables to track information about commands and the system environment.
The standard interactive shell is bash.
There are others, for example, zsh or fish.

It is named a shell because it is like an outermost layer,
around the operating system kernel.

There are many shells, and bash is just one:
https://medium.com/better-programming/fish-vs-zsh-vs-bash-reasons-why-you-need-to-switch-to-fish-4e63a66687eb
https://medium.com/almoullim/from-bash-to-zsh-to-fish-e432f1e1b9f8
https://zellwk.com/blog/bash-zsh-fish/
https://www.davidokwii.com/bash-zsh-and-fish-the-awesomeness-of-linux-shells/
https://medium.com/better-programming/why-i-use-fish-shell-over-bash-and-zsh-407d23293839
https://www.skepticism.us/posts/2017/10/time-to-pick-a-new-shell/
and others too...

https://xon.sh
The fancy car above is a python super-set...
containing all python and a lot of bash.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=uaje5I22kgE&feature=youtu.be

See the shells on your system:
cat /etc/shells
Results in this on my system:

Bash

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)
Bash is a shell, a command processor that typically runs in a text window,
where the user types commands that cause actions.
Bash can also read and execute commands from a file,
called a "shell script" or "bash script".
Bash is the most common shell;
it is the default go-to.

Demonstrate:

• ssh into campus machine
• navigate around
• create a directory
• make a bash script
• run it

Copying bash commands from others

Make sure you understand the command; it could be dangerous.
$ at the beginning of a line is NOT part of the command.
$ in the middle of the command is part of the command...
It's possible to hide nasty commands in "invisible" white-space characters,
so you may want to manually re-type commands you're copying...

Navigating

Navigating the file-system

$ ls List files in the current directory. You can alternatively give it a directory to list.
$ ls -l Display the output in a detailed list, one line per file.
$ ls -h Display file sizes in a human-readable format.
$ ls -a Display all files, including hidden ones.

$ pwd Print working directory. This is where you are now!

$ cd DIRECTORY Change directory.
$ cd without a directory takes you $HOME, as does cd ~ or cd $HOME
$ cd - takes you to the previous directory you were in
$ cd .. takes you up/back a directory in the tree
$ cd ../../ you up/back two levels in the directory tree

$ tree prints an enumerated walk through all sub-directories of your current working director, or the directory passed to it.

Note:
exa is a nicer replacement for ls and tree,
written in the Rust programming language
(an actually well-designed language).
$ exa -l
$ exa --tree

Shortcuts and aliases

File and Directory Shortcuts:

. always refers to the directory you are currently in.
.. always refers to the parent of the current directory.
~ refers to your home directory.
/ refers to the root directory. Everything lives under root.

Globs / wildcards

Searching for partial matches

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildcard_character
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glob_%28programming%29
* matches 0 or more characters in a file or directory name.
? matches exactly one character in a file or directory name.
For example, $ ls *.cpp lists all your cpp files.

Rearranging and renaming files

$ mv SOURCE DESTINATION Move (or rename) files.
$ mv -i Interactively ask you before overwriting files.
$ mv -n Never overwrite files.
mv is used to rename;
just move the file to the same directory with a different name,
for example:
$ mv old_name new_name

$ cp SOURCE DESTINATION Copy files.
$ cp -r Recursively copy directories, which is what you want to do.

$ rm FILE Remove one or more files.
$ rm -f Forcibly remove nonexistent files.
$ rm -r DIRECTORY removes a directory and all it's files

$ mkdir DIRECTORY Makes a directory.
$ mkdir -p DIRECTORY/SUBDIRECTORY Makes every missing directory in the given path

$ rmdir DIRECTORY Removes a directory, when it's empty anyway.

Looking at text files (encoded via ASCII, UTF-8, etc.)

$ cat [FILE] Print out file contents.

$ less [FILE] Paginate files or STDIN.

$ head [FILE] Print lines from the top of a file or STDIN.

$ tail [FILE] Print lines from the end of a file or STDIN.
$ tail -n LINES Print LINES lines instead of 10.
$ tail -f Print new lines as they are appended ($ tail only).

$ sort [FILE] Sorts files or STDIN.
$ sort -u Only prints one of each matching line (unique).
Often paired with $ uniq for similar effect.

$ diff FILE1 FILE2 Shows differences between files.
a/d/c reports Added/Deleted/Changed.
$ diff --side-by-side FILE1 FILE2 may be easier to read

+++++++++++++++++
Cahoot-02b.1
https://mst.instructure.com/courses/58101/quizzes/54981

I/O

For more detail on this section, see:
index:Classes:ComputationalThinking:Content:18-InputOutput

In general, a command (a program):
Gets data to process from standard input or stdin (default: keyboard).
Returns processed data to standard output or stdout (default: screen).
If program execution causes errors,
error messages are sent to standard error or stderr (default: screen).
Those three inputs and outputs are files, and are always open.
As all open files, they are assigned to a file descriptor (an integer).
File descriptors for stdin, stdout and stderr:

Redirecting I/O

Each program has three default I/O streams:

STDIN: input, by default from the keyboard (std::cin / input()).
STDOUT: output, by default to the screen (std::cout / print()).
STDERR: output, by default to the screen (std::cerr).

We can redirect IO to, or from, files or other programs.
$ cmd1 | cmd2 Pipe STDOUT from cmd1 into STDIN for cmd2.
$ cmd <input.txt Funnel data from input.txt to STDIN for cmd.
$ cmd >output.txt Funnel STDOUT from cmd into output.txt.

Question: what do you think the following does?
$ cmd <input.txt >output.txt

STDERR redirection tricks

bash uses 1 and 2 to refer to STDOUT and STDERR.
$ cmd 2> err.txt Funnel STDERR from cmd into err.txt.
$ cmd 2>&1 Funnel STDERR from cmd into STDOUT.
$ cmd &> all-output.txt Funnel all output from cmd into all-output.txt.
Common usage: $ cmd &>/dev/null dumps all output to the bit bucket.

Environment variables

Shells keep track of a lot of information in variables.
$ printenv shows all the environment variables set in your shell
$ env shows exported environment variables (variables that are also set in the environment of programs launched from this shell).
$ set lets you set them.
$ VAR="value" sets the value of $VAR. (No spaces around the =!).
$ echo $VAR prints the value of a variable in the shell.
You can get environment variable values in C++ with getenv().

Useful variables

$PATH Colon-delimited list of directories to look for programs in.
$EDITOR Tells which editor you would prefer programs to launch for you.
$ ~/.bashrc runs every time you start bash, so you can export customization commands there.

Neat bash tricks

Tab completion works for files and commands!!!
When it doubt, tap tab twice!!

History:
up/down arrows scroll through history.
ctrl-r searches backwards through history.

$ !! holds the last command executed.
$ !$ holds the last argument to the last command.
$ $? holds the return/exit code from the last command

$ alias l=ls runs ls when you type l
The effect of this variable is temporary.
but, you can put this in a bash startup script.

Processes

$ ps Process list.
$ ps aux or $ ps -ef show lots of information about all processes.
$ ps has crazy whack options.

$ top and $ htop give an interactive process listing.

Job Control

Start processes in the background: $ command &.
If you have a command running in the foreground, you can stop it with ctrl-z.
$ fg starts the last process in the foreground.
$ bg starts the last process in the background.
$ disown enables you to close the terminal, but leave the job going.
$ jobs shows your running jobs.
$ fg %2 starts job 2 in the foreground.
$ kill PID Kills a process. (You can do $ kill %1!)
$ killall command Kills every process running command.

Getting help

Last but not least: –help, -h, and man

$ COMMAND --help or $ COMMAND -h often provide concise help
$ man COMMAND opens a full manual listing for that command.
$ info COMMAND for some other types of command
q quits the manual.
j/k scroll up and down a line.
space scrolls down one page.
/thing searches within a man page,
with syntax like how less, more, and vim search for things.
n/N go to next/previous search result.
$ man man gives you the manual for the manual!
$ man -k "KEYWORD" searches all the man pages for thing.
$ help COMMAND gives you help with builtins.

+++++++++++++++++
Cahoot-02b.2
https://mst.instructure.com/courses/58101/quizzes/54982

Task for you:

• Read this tutorial in full!

Bash scripting

This part is for those who already know a bit of programming
(CS1500 can skim or skip this section).
./hello.sh

What is shell scripting good for?

Shell scripts are the duct tape and bailing wire of computer programming.

• Automate repeated tasks
• Great for jobs that require a lot of interaction with files
• To set up the environment for big, complicated programs
• To make sure you can reproduce installing or running larger more complicated programs
• When you need to stick a bunch of programs together into something useful
• To add customizations to your environment

Input and output

$ read variable lets the user enter input into variable.
$ echo "string" prints string to the screen.
$ echo $variable prints variable's contents to the screen.

Example
./inout.sh

Running other code

A practical example
./runit1.sh

Special variables in any bash script

The following are special variables,
automatically available to any bash script when it it run:
$? Exit code of the last command run.
$0 Name of command that started this script (almost always the script's name).
$1, $2, …, $9 Command line arguments 1-9.
$@ All command line arguments except $0.
$# The number of command line arguments in $@.

Bash really likes splitting things up into words.
$ for arg in $@ will NOT do what you want.
$ for arg in "$@" correctly handles args with spaces.
In general, when using the value of a variable you don't control,
it is wise to put " around that variable.
Quoting like "$thing" makes things inside more literally interpreted,
and quoting like '$thing' makes them even more literal.

A Spiffier Example
./runit2.sh

Control flow structures

Conditional Statements

In a bash script, or one-line bash command, branching is possible:
./if.sh

Conditional operators

[ ] is shorthand for the $ test command.
[[ ]] is a bash keyword which has extra fancy features
[ ] works on most shells, but [[ ]] is more modern.
(( )) is another bash keyword. It does arithmetic.

String Comparison Operators for

=, == String equality OR pattern matching if the RHS is a pattern.
!= String inequality.
< The LHS sorts before the RHS.
> The LHS sorts after the RHS.
-z The string is empty (length is zero).
-n The string is not empty (e.g. $ [[ -n "$var" ]]).

Numeric Comparison Operators for

-eq Numeric equality (e.g. $ [[ 5 -eq 5 ]]).
-ne Numeric inequality.
-lt Less than
-gt Greater than
-le Less than or equal to
-ge Greater than or equal to

File Operators for

-e True if the file exists (e.g. $ [[ -e story.txt ]])
-f True if the file is a regular file
-d True if the file is a directory
There are a lot more file operators that deal with even fancier stuff.

General Operators for

&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT
You can use parentheses to group statements too.

Shell Arithmetic with (( ))

• This mostly works just like C++ arithmetic.

You don't need $ on the front of normal variables:
(( number_variable = number_variable + 4 ))
** does exponentiation.
You can do ternaries:
(( 3 < 5 ? 3 : 5 ))

http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bash.html#Shell-Arithmetic

You can capture the output of math into a variable like this:
arr=$(( 3 + 5 ))

Spiffy++ Example

./runit3.sh
(Could you spiff it up even more with file checks?)

Case statements

Meh, if you use these:
./case.sh

Loops

For Looping

./for.sh
./args.sh

While Looping

./while.sh

Functions

./function.sh

Can return a small number (but that's it).
Returning is intended for exit/return codes, not data/content.

• Add example about returning a number from functions.

To return more than just a small number, you need to capture the output of the command:

Capturing standard output from a command

To get data back from a function

#!/bin/bash

var=$(func)
# or 
var=`func`

• Add notes about captured printed values like return statements, etc.

Sub-shells

• TODO

Arrays

./arrays.sh
./arrfunc.sh
./assoc_arr.sh

Miscellany

Escaping characters: use \ on \, `, $, ", ', #.

$ pushd and $ popd create a stack of directories.
Use these instead of $ cd.

$ dirs lists the stack.

$ set -u gives an error if you try to use an unset variable.
$ set -x prints out commands as they are run.

$ : is a no-op command, like pass.

A double dash (--) is used in most bash built-in commands,
and many other commands,
to signify the end of command options,
after which only positional parameters are accepted.
Example use:
Lets say you want to grep a file for the string -v ,
- normally -v will be considered the option to reverse the matching meaning
(only show lines that do not match),
but with -- you can grep for string -v like this:
grep -- -v file.
grep -e -v will also work.

Generate random strings

#!/bin/bash
# bash generate random alphanumeric string

< /dev/urandom tr -cd "[:print:]" | head -c 32; echo

< /dev/urandom tr -cd '[:graph:]'| tr  -d '\\' | head -c 32; echo 
# if you dont want ` characters in generated string. 
# h` because is an escape character in many languages causes problems 

LC_ALL=C tr -dc 'A-Za-z0-9!"#$%&'\''()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~' </dev/urandom | head -c 13 ; echo

# bash generate random 32 character alphanumeric string (upper and lowercase) and 
NEW_UUID=$(cat /dev/urandom | tr -dc 'a-zA-Z0-9' | fold -w 32 | head -n 1)

# bash generate random 32 character alphanumeric string (lowercase only)
cat /dev/urandom | tr -dc 'a-zA-Z0-9' | fold -w 32 | head -n 1

# Random numbers in a range, more randomly distributed than $RANDOM which is not
# very random in terms of distribution of numbers.

# bash generate random number between 0 and 9
cat /dev/urandom | tr -dc '0-9' | fold -w 256 | head -n 1 | head --bytes 1

# bash generate random number between 0 and 99
NUMBER=$(cat /dev/urandom | tr -dc '0-9' | fold -w 256 | head -n 1 | sed -e 's/^0*//' | head --bytes 2)
if [ "$NUMBER" == "" ]; then
  NUMBER=0
fi

# bash generate random number between 0 and 999
NUMBER=$(cat /dev/urandom | tr -dc '0-9' | fold -w 256 | head -n 1 | sed -e 's/^0*//' | head --bytes 3)
if [ "$NUMBER" == "" ]; then
  NUMBER=0
fi

Bash debugging

How to debug your bash scripts:

Option 1

Option 2

In your script file itself:

set -x
..code to debug...
set +x

Option 3

http://bashdb.sourceforge.net/
Pretty decent

Option 4

Just a simple syntax checker
http://shellcheck.net
$ shellcheck myscript.sh

Option 5

https://github.com/ryakad/bashdb

Things to watch out for

• Mac, Linux, and Windows all use different end-of-line characters.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newline
  • Copy-pasting between platforms can produce newline character and file encoding errors; stick to the class VM!
• Don't put spaces in your filenames!
• Bash is particular about spacing!!
• caPitaLIzatioN matters...
• Quoting like this "$thing" is usually a good idea, even when it may be optional
  • '' is more literal than ""
  • https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/html_node/Quoting.html#Quoting

If we set

a=apple      # a simple variable
arr=(apple)  # an indexed array with a single element

and then echo the expression in the second column,
we would get the result / behavior shown in the third column.
The fourth column explains the behavior:

# 	Expression 	Result 	Comments
1 	"$a" 	apple 	variables are expanded inside ""

2 	'$a' 	$a 	variables are not expanded inside ''

3 	"'$a'" 	'apple' 	'' has no special meaning inside ""

4 	'"$a"' 	"$a" 	"" is treated literally inside ''

5 	'\'' 	invalid 	can not escape a ' within ''; use "'" or $'\'' (ANSI-C quoting)

6 	"red$arocks" 	red 	$arocks does not expand $a; use ${a}rocks to preserve $a

7 	"redapple$" 	redapple$ 	$ followed by no variable name evaluates to $

8 	'\"' 	\" 	\ has no special meaning inside ''

9 	"\'" 	\' 	\' is interpreted inside "" but has no significance for '

10 	"\"" 	" 	\" is interpreted inside ""

11 	"*" 	* 	glob does not work inside "" or ''

12 	"\t\n" 	\t\n 	\t and \n have no special meaning inside "" or ''; use ANSI-C quoting

13 	"`echo hi`" 	hi 	`` and $() are evaluated inside "" (backquotes are retained in actual output)

14 	'`echo hi`' 	echo hi 	`` and $() are not evaluated inside '' (backquotes are retained in actual output)

15 	'${arr[0]}' 	${arr[0]} 	array access not possible inside ''

16 	"${arr[0]}" 	apple 	array access works inside ""

17 	$'$a\'' 	$a' 	single quotes can be escaped inside ANSI-C quoting

18 	"$'\t'" 	$'\t' 	ANSI-C quoting is not interpreted inside ""

19 	'!cmd' 	!cmd 	history expansion character '!' is ignored inside ''

20 	"!cmd" 	cmd args 	expands to the most recent command matching "cmd"

21 	$'!cmd' 	!cmd 	history expansion character '!' is ignored inside ANSI-C quotes

https://wiki.bash-hackers.org/syntax/quoting

Parsing args

docopt bash
https://bashly.dannyb.co/

eval exec

ComputationalThinking:Content:24-EvilEval

source .

• todo

command capture

``
$()

• todo

Extra reading

./LearnBash.sh (giant bash script to learn bash)
../tools-for-computer-scientists.pdf Appendix E, Chapter 1
./02-shell_commands.pdf (my old slides)
./04-shell_scripting.pdf (my old slides)

Links on learning bash

In alphabetical order:
http://labor-liber.org/en/gnu-linux/introduction/ (decent high level summary)
http://linuxcommand.org/lc3_learning_the_shell.php (great starting point, read this)
http://linuxcommand.org/lc3_writing_shell_scripts.php
http://linuxcommand.org/tlcl.php
http://mywiki.wooledge.org/BashGuide
http://mywiki.wooledge.org/Bashism (bash versus posix/dash/sh)
http://mywiki.wooledge.org/BashProgramming
http://tille.garrels.be/training/bash
http://wiki.bash-hackers.org/
http://www.bash.academy/ (good bash-purist tutorial; un-finished for advanced topics)
http://www.linfo.org/pipe.html
http://www.panix.com/~elflord/unix/bash-tute.html
https://arachnoid.com/linux/shell_programming.html
https://bash.awesome-programming.com/
https://devhints.io/bash (cheat sheet)
https://doc.opensuse.org/documentation/leap/startup/single-html/book.opensuse.startup/index.html#part.bash
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bash_Shell_Scripting
https://fedoramagazine.org/bash-shell-scripting-for-beginners-part-1/
https://github.com/awesome-lists/awesome-bash
https://github.com/dylanaraps/pure-bash-bible
https://github.com/jlevy/the-art-of-command-line
https://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/bash/ (good, read this!)
https://lym.readthedocs.io/en/latest/index.html
https://ryanstutorials.net/bash-scripting-tutorial/ (good intro for beginners)
https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-extras/
https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice
https://tldp.org/HOWTO/Bash-Prog-Intro-HOWTO.html
https://tldp.org/LDP/abs/html/
https://tldp.org/LDP/Bash-Beginners-Guide/html/
https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/ (THE bash manual)
https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-good-books-for-learning-Linux-bash-or-shell-scripting (list of more)
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-best-resource-for-learning-Bash-scripting (list of more)
https://www.shellscript.sh/ (ok)
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/unix/ (mediocre, decent overview, some mistakes)

Some games for learning bash

https://gitlab.com/slackermedia/bashcrawl (decent, basic)
https://overthewire.org/wargames/ (pretty good, a little more advanced)
https://www.redhat.com/en/command-line-heroes/bash/index.html?extIdCarryOver=true&sc_cid=701f2000001OH79AAG (mediocre?)

Next: 03-VersionControl